[{"data":1,"prerenderedAt":484},["ShallowReactive",2],{"schematic:lm358-inverting-amplifier:es":3},{"schematic":4,"title":19,"shortDescription":22,"proseSource":439,"localizationFallbackIssues":440,"related":441,"confirmations":440},{"schemaVersion":5,"governance":6,"slug":18,"title":19,"cluster":20,"tier":21,"shortDescription":22,"deepTechnicalOverview":23,"theoryOfOperation":24,"keySpecifications":25,"applications":50,"gotchas":55,"formulas":74,"bom":132,"interactiveElements":154,"circuitJson":221,"svg":435,"relatedSchematicSlugs":436,"relatedComponentSlugs":437,"relatedBoardSlugs":438},"1.0",{"publication":7,"verification":10,"provenance":15},{"status":8,"publishedDate":9},"published","2026-11-02",{"status":11,"verifiedDate":9,"verifiedBy":12,"checklist":13},"verified","Gemini (AI documentary, CAD and hardware-localization review against Texas Instruments SLOS068AB; owner publication authorization; no bench, simulation, independent second review or native-speaker claim)",{"schema":14,"technicalFacts":14,"relationships":14,"sources":14},true,{"sourceUrls":16},[17],"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.ti.com\u002Flit\u002Fds\u002Fsymlink\u002Flm358.pdf","lm358-inverting-amplifier","LM358: amplificador operacional inversor","analog_sensing","Tier 1","Amplificador inversor monocanal basado en el operacional dual Texas Instruments LM358 con ganancia en lazo cerrado de -3.6 V\u002FV y alimentación simétrica de ±12 V.","Este circuito implementa el amplificador inversor clásico de la hoja de datos Texas Instruments LM358 SLOS068AB Figura 8-1. Alimentado desde rieles simétricos de ±12 V, proporciona una ganancia inversora en lazo cerrado de Av = -RF \u002F RI = -36 kΩ \u002F 10 kΩ = -3.6 V\u002FV. La alimentación doble simétrica permite amplificar señales bipolares (entrada de ±0.5 V produce salida de ∓1.8 V) centradas en tierra. La elevada ganancia en lazo abierto fija la entrada inversora en tierra virtual (0 V), mientras que la realimentación negativa proporciona alta linealidad, respuesta predecible hasta 152 kHz y baja impedancia de salida.","### 1. Alimentación simétrica de doble riel\nEl amplificador operacional LM358 se alimenta desde rieles simétricos de ±12 V (+12 V conectado al pin 8 V+, -12 V conectado al pin 4 V-). Los rieles simétricos permiten que la etapa de salida clase AB bascule sin distorsión en sentidos positivo y negativo respecto a la tierra de 0 V, posibilitando una amplificación limpia de señales de CA y CC bipolar.\n\n### 2. Nodo de suma en tierra virtual\nLa entrada no inversora (IN+ \u002F pin 3) se conecta directamente a la tierra del circuito (0 V). La etapa diferencial interna del operacional y su enorme ganancia en lazo abierto (A_OL ≈ 100 dB) actúan mediante el lazo de realimentación negativa para forzar la tensión diferencial V_ID = V+ - V- prácticamente a cero voltios. Como consecuencia, el nodo inversor en el pin 2 se mantiene en 0 V, formando una tierra virtual ideal.\n\n### 3. Ganancia inversora y balance de corriente de realimentación\nDado que los transistores Darlington PNP de entrada del LM358 demandan una corriente de polarización mínima (IB ≈ 20 nA típica), la corriente que fluye por la resistencia de entrada R1 circula íntegramente por la resistencia de realimentación R2. Aplicando la Ley de Corrientes de Kirchhoff en el nodo de tierra virtual:\n$$I_{IN} = \\frac{V_{IN} - 0\\text{V}}{R_I} = \\frac{0\\text{V} - V_{OUT}}{R_F}$$\nDespejando la tensión de salida V_OUT se obtiene la ecuación clásica del amplificador inversor:\n$$V_{OUT} = -V_{IN} \\cdot \\frac{R_F}{R_I} = -V_{IN} \\cdot \\frac{36\\text{k}\\Omega}{10\\text{k}\\Omega} = -3.6 \\cdot V_{IN}$$\nUna señal de entrada de ±0.5 V se invierte en fase 180° y se escala a ∓1.8 V.\n\n### 4. Impedancia de entrada y carga sobre la fuente\nDebido a la tierra virtual en el terminal inversor, la impedancia de entrada del circuito queda definida exactamente por la resistencia en serie R1:\n$$Z_{IN} = R_I = 10\\text{k}\\Omega$$\nA diferencia de las etapas no inversoras con impedancia de entrada en gigaohmios, el amplificador inversor toma de la fuente una corriente de I_IN = ±0.5 V \u002F 10 kΩ = ±50 µA. Los generadores de señal previos deben presentar baja impedancia de salida (\u003C 10 Ω) para evitar errores de atenuación en la ganancia.\n\n### 5. Límites dinámicos de ancho de banda y velocidad de respuesta\nEl LM358 ofrece un producto ganancia-ancho de banda (GBW) de 0.7 MHz (700 kHz) y una velocidad de respuesta (slew rate) de 0.3 V\u002Fµs. Con una ganancia de ruido en lazo cerrado A_N = 1 + RF \u002F RI = 1 + 3.6 = 4.6 V\u002FV, el ancho de banda a pequeña señal (-3 dB) resulta:\n$$f_{-3\\text{dB}} \\approx \\frac{GBW}{1 + \\frac{R_F}{R_I}} = \\frac{700\\text{kHz}}{4.6} \\approx 152\\text{ kHz}$$\nPara oscilaciones de gran amplitud (3.6 V pico a pico), el ancho de banda a plena potencia queda limitado por el slew rate de 0.3 V\u002Fµs a aproximadamente 26.5 kHz antes de que la onda sinusoidal se deforme en triangular.",[26,29,32,35,38,41,44,47],{"label":27,"value":28},"Ganancia en lazo cerrado (Av)","-3.6 V\u002FV (-11.13 dB, inversión de fase 180°)",{"label":30,"value":31},"Resistencia de entrada (RI \u002F R1)","10 kΩ, 1%, 0.125 W",{"label":33,"value":34},"Resistencia de realimentación (RF \u002F R2)","36 kΩ, 1%, 0.125 W",{"label":36,"value":37},"Rango de señal de entrada (VI)","±0.5 V nominal (1.0 V pico a pico)",{"label":39,"value":40},"Rango de señal de salida (VO)","∓1.8 V nominal (3.6 V pico a pico)",{"label":42,"value":43},"Rieles de alimentación (V+ \u002F V-)","±12 V simétrica (rango operativo de ±1.5 V a ±16 V)",{"label":45,"value":46},"Ancho de banda a pequeña señal (-3 dB)","≈ 152 kHz (GBW = 0.7 MHz, ganancia de ruido = 4.6)",{"label":48,"value":49},"Impedancia de entrada (ZIN)","10 kΩ (definida por R1)",[51,52,53,54],"Escalado e inversión matemática de señales analógicas de precisión en instrumentación","Etapa sumadora inversora de preamplificador de audio para mezcladores activos","Acondicionamiento de señales bipolares para convertidores analógico a digital (ADC)","Circuito de referencia pedagógico en laboratorios para el estudio de amplificadores operacionales",[56,61,66,70],{"title":57,"trap":58,"solution":59,"severity":60},"Distorsión de cruce por cero de la etapa clase AB","Al cambiar el sentido de la corriente de salida a través de 0 V entre suministrar y absorber corriente, la etapa de salida complementaria del LM358 entra en una zona muerta que genera picos de conmutación de alta frecuencia en señales senoidales.","Conecte una resistencia pull-down externa (de 2 kΩ a 10 kΩ) desde la salida (pin 1) hacia el riel negativo (-12 V). Esto mantiene al transistor NPN superior suministrando corriente de forma continua, forzando operación en clase A pura.","critical",{"title":62,"trap":63,"solution":64,"severity":65},"Tensión de offset por corriente de polarización de entrada","Los transistores Darlington PNP de entrada del LM358 presentan una corriente de polarización (IB ≈ 20 nA a 100 nA) que sale de ambas entradas. Conectar IN+ directamente a tierra con 0 Ω produce una caída de tensión desigual sobre el paralelo RI || RF (7.83 kΩ), amplificando un offset de CC indeseado en la salida.","Inserte una resistencia de compensación RP = RI || RF ≈ 7.5 kΩ a 8.2 kΩ en serie entre la entrada no inversora IN+ (pin 3) y tierra para equilibrar las resistencias equivalentes de fuente en ambas entradas.","warning",{"title":67,"trap":68,"solution":69,"severity":65},"Ancho de banda a plena potencia limitado por velocidad de respuesta","Con un modesto slew rate de 0.3 V\u002Fµs, excitar señales de gran amplitud (3.6 V p-p) por encima de 26 kHz provoca limitación por velocidad de respuesta, transformando ondas sinusoidales puras en señales triangulares distorsionadas.","Restrinja las señales de gran amplitud a frecuencias inferiores a 25 kHz, o elija un amplificador operacional compatible de mayor velocidad como el TL072 (13 V\u002Fµs) u OPA2134 (20 V\u002Fµs).",{"title":71,"trap":72,"solution":73,"severity":65},"La resistencia de la fuente altera la ganancia en lazo cerrado","Dado que la impedancia de entrada del circuito depende exclusivamente de RI (10 kΩ), la resistencia interna de la fuente de señal R_fuente se suma directamente a RI, disminuyendo la ganancia real a -RF \u002F (RI + R_fuente).","Excite la etapa inversora mediante un búfer de baja impedancia de salida (\u003C 10 Ω), o reste el valor conocido de la resistencia de fuente de R1 para que la suma total sea exactamente 10 kΩ.",[75,98,114],{"name":76,"latexOrText":77,"description":78,"variables":79},"Ganancia de tensión inversora en lazo cerrado","V_{OUT} = -V_{IN} \\cdot \\frac{R_F}{R_I}","Calcula la tensión de salida invertida según la relación entre resistencia de realimentación y de entrada.",[80,85,89,94],{"symbol":81,"name":82,"typicalValue":83,"unit":84},"V_{OUT}","Tensión de salida amplificada","-1.8","V",{"symbol":86,"name":87,"typicalValue":88,"unit":84},"V_{IN}","Tensión de señal de entrada","0.5",{"symbol":90,"name":91,"typicalValue":92,"unit":93},"R_F","Resistencia de realimentación","36","kΩ",{"symbol":95,"name":96,"typicalValue":97,"unit":93},"R_I","Resistencia de entrada","10",{"name":99,"latexOrText":100,"description":101,"variables":102},"Ancho de banda a pequeña señal en lazo cerrado","f_{-3\\text{dB}} = \\frac{GBW}{1 + \\frac{R_F}{R_I}}","Calcula el corte a -3 dB en alta frecuencia según el producto ganancia-ancho de banda y la ganancia de ruido.",[103,108,112,113],{"symbol":104,"name":105,"typicalValue":106,"unit":107},"f_{-3\\text{dB}}","Frecuencia de corte a -3 dB","152.2","kHz",{"symbol":109,"name":110,"typicalValue":111,"unit":107},"GBW","Producto ganancia-ancho de banda (GBW)","700",{"symbol":90,"name":91,"typicalValue":92,"unit":93},{"symbol":95,"name":96,"typicalValue":97,"unit":93},{"name":115,"latexOrText":116,"description":117,"variables":118},"Ancho de banda a plena potencia por slew rate","f_{FPBW} = \\frac{SR}{2\\pi \\cdot V_P}","Calcula la frecuencia máxima admisible a amplitud de salida de pico sin distorsión por velocidad de respuesta.",[119,123,128],{"symbol":120,"name":121,"typicalValue":122,"unit":107},"f_{FPBW}","Ancho de banda a plena potencia","26.5",{"symbol":124,"name":125,"typicalValue":126,"unit":127},"SR","Velocidad de respuesta del operacional","0.3","V\u002Fµs",{"symbol":129,"name":130,"typicalValue":131,"unit":84},"V_P","Amplitud de tensión de salida de pico","1.8",[133,142,149],{"refDes":134,"componentName":135,"value":136,"package":137,"quantity":138,"componentSlug":139,"role":140,"notes":141},"U1","Amplificador operacional dual","LM358P","PDIP-8",1,"lm358","Amplificador operacional inversor (utiliza canal A)","Texas Instruments LM358P, SLOS068AB Rev. AB; patilla 1 OUT1, patilla 2 IN1-, patilla 3 IN1+, patilla 4 GND\u002FV-, patilla 8 V+.",{"refDes":143,"componentName":144,"value":145,"package":146,"quantity":138,"role":147,"notes":148},"R1","Resistencia en serie de entrada","10kΩ","Axial \u002F 0805","Escalado de señal de entrada y definición de impedancia","Resistencia de película metálica de 10 kΩ, 1%, 0.125 W. Fija la impedancia de entrada en 10 kΩ.",{"refDes":150,"componentName":91,"value":151,"package":146,"quantity":138,"role":152,"notes":153},"R2","36kΩ","Lazo cerrado de realimentación negativa","Resistencia de película metálica de 36 kΩ, 1%, 0.125 W. Fija la ganancia en lazo cerrado en -3.6 V\u002FV.",{"U1A":155,"R1":166,"R2":175,"P1":180,"P2":188,"P_VCC":195,"P_VEE":204,"GND1":212},{"refDes":156,"name":157,"value":136,"role":158,"description":159,"componentSlug":139,"footprint":137,"specs":160},"U1A","Amplificador operacional dual TI LM358P (Canal A)","Amplificador operacional inversor","Etapa amplificadora inversora alimentada desde rieles simétricos de ±12 V. Cierra el lazo de realimentación negativa para mantener tierra virtual en pin 2 y suministrar salida invertida en pin 1.",{"Tensión de alimentación":161,"Producto ganancia-ancho de banda":162,"Velocidad de respuesta (slew rate)":163,"Corriente de polarización de entrada":164,"Corriente de reposo":165},"±12 V (de ±1.5 V a ±16 V)","0.7 MHz típ.","0.3 V\u002Fµs típ.","20 nA típ.","350 µA\u002Fcanal típ.",{"refDes":143,"name":167,"value":145,"role":168,"description":169,"footprint":146,"specs":170},"Resistencia de entrada (RI)","Escalado de señal y nodo de suma","Convierte la tensión de entrada VI en corriente de señal I_IN = VI \u002F 10 kΩ. Define la impedancia de entrada del circuito Z_IN = 10 kΩ.",{"Resistencia":171,"Tolerancia":172,"Potencia nominal":173,"Coeficiente de temperatura":174},"10 kΩ","1%","0.125 W","±50 ppm\u002F°C",{"refDes":150,"name":176,"value":151,"role":152,"description":177,"footprint":146,"specs":178},"Resistencia de realimentación (RF)","Establece la realimentación negativa desde la salida (pin 1) hacia la entrada inversora (pin 2). Fija el módulo de la ganancia |Av| = 36 kΩ \u002F 10 kΩ = 3.6 V\u002FV.",{"Resistencia":179,"Tolerancia":172,"Potencia nominal":173,"Coeficiente de temperatura":174},"36 kΩ",{"refDes":181,"name":182,"value":183,"role":184,"description":185,"footprint":186,"specs":187},"P1","Puerto de señal de entrada","VIN","Señal de entrada bipolar CA\u002FCC","Terminal de entrada que recibe la señal nominal de ±0.5 V referenciada a la tierra del circuito.","Through-hole Test Point",{"Rango de señal":37},{"refDes":189,"name":190,"value":191,"role":192,"description":193,"footprint":186,"specs":194},"P2","Puerto de señal de salida","VOUT","Señal de salida amplificada e invertida","Terminal de salida que entrega la señal invertida nominal de ∓1.8 V (desfasada 180°) a etapas posteriores o carga.",{"Rango de señal":40},{"refDes":196,"name":197,"value":198,"role":199,"description":200,"footprint":201,"specs":202},"P_VCC","Puerto de alimentación positiva","+12V","Conexión a riel de alimentación positivo","Suministra +12 V al pin 8 (V+) del amplificador operacional. Requiere condensador de desacoplo de 100 nF a tierra.","Power Terminal",{"Tensión nominal":203},"+12 V CC",{"refDes":205,"name":206,"value":207,"role":208,"description":209,"footprint":201,"specs":210},"P_VEE","Puerto de alimentación negativa","-12V","Conexión a riel de alimentación negativo","Suministra -12 V al pin 4 (V-) del amplificador operacional. Requiere condensador de desacoplo de 100 nF a tierra.",{"Tensión nominal":211},"-12 V CC",{"refDes":213,"name":214,"value":215,"role":216,"description":217,"footprint":218,"specs":219},"GND1","Puerto de tierra de circuito","GND","Referencia de tierra de entrada no inversora","Conecta la entrada no inversora (pin 3) a 0 V de tierra, fijando el potencial de tierra virtual en la entrada inversora.","Ground Point",{"Potencial":220},"0 V",{"schemaVersion":222,"id":18,"meta":223,"components":229,"nets":288,"junctions":333,"netLabels":342,"wires":343},"1.5",{"title":19,"locale":224,"grid":225,"source":226},"es",20,{"type":227,"ref":228,"url":17},"datasheet","Texas Instruments SLOS068AB (Rev. AB, Oct 2024), Figure 8-1 \"Application Schematic\". Inverting amplifier with gain Av = -3.6 V\u002FV (RI = 10 kΩ, RF = 36 kΩ, ±12 V split supply, VI = ±0.5 V, VO = ∓1.8 V).",[230,238,247,254,260,267,274,281],{"id":231,"symbolId":232,"refDes":181,"position":233,"rotation":236,"properties":237},"comp-p-in","port.input",{"x":234,"y":235},80,220,0,{"value":183},{"id":239,"symbolId":240,"refDes":143,"position":241,"rotation":236,"properties":243},"comp-r1","resistor.iec",{"x":242,"y":235},200,{"value":145,"tolerance":172,"powerRating":244,"package":146,"mpn":245,"manufacturer":246},"0.125W","MFR-25FRF52-10K","Yageo",{"id":248,"symbolId":240,"refDes":150,"position":249,"rotation":236,"properties":252},"comp-r2",{"x":250,"y":251},400,40,{"value":151,"tolerance":172,"powerRating":244,"package":146,"mpn":253,"manufacturer":246},"MFR-25FRF52-36K",{"id":255,"symbolId":256,"refDes":156,"position":257,"rotation":236,"properties":258},"comp-u1","opamp.inverting",{"x":250,"y":235},{"value":136,"package":137,"mpn":136,"manufacturer":259},"Texas Instruments",{"id":261,"symbolId":262,"refDes":213,"position":263,"rotation":236,"properties":266},"comp-gnd1","gnd.port",{"x":264,"y":265},340,320,{"value":215},{"id":268,"symbolId":269,"refDes":196,"position":270,"rotation":236,"properties":273},"comp-p-vcc","port.power",{"x":271,"y":272},420,120,{"value":198},{"id":275,"symbolId":269,"refDes":205,"position":276,"rotation":279,"properties":280},"comp-p-vee",{"x":277,"y":278},460,380,180,{"value":207},{"id":282,"symbolId":283,"refDes":189,"position":284,"rotation":236,"properties":287},"comp-p-out","port.output",{"x":285,"y":286},600,240,{"value":191},[289,297,306,314,321,327],{"id":290,"name":183,"class":291,"pins":292},"net_vin","signal",[293,295],{"component":231,"pin":294},"out",{"component":239,"pin":296},"1",{"id":298,"name":299,"class":291,"pins":300},"net_inv","INV_SUM",[301,303,305],{"component":239,"pin":302},"2",{"component":255,"pin":304},"in_neg",{"component":248,"pin":296},{"id":307,"name":215,"class":308,"pins":309},"net_gnd","ground",[310,312],{"component":255,"pin":311},"in_pos",{"component":261,"pin":313},"in",{"id":315,"name":198,"class":316,"pins":317},"net_vcc","power",[318,319],{"component":268,"pin":294},{"component":255,"pin":320},"v_pos",{"id":322,"name":207,"class":316,"pins":323},"net_vee",[324,326],{"component":255,"pin":325},"v_neg",{"component":275,"pin":294},{"id":328,"name":191,"class":291,"pins":329},"net_out",[330,331,332],{"component":255,"pin":294},{"component":248,"pin":302},{"component":282,"pin":313},[334,337],{"id":335,"netId":298,"position":336},"j-inv",{"x":264,"y":286},{"id":338,"netId":328,"position":339},"j-out",{"x":340,"y":341},540,260,[],[344,353,362,370,380,390,400,409,418,427],{"id":345,"netId":290,"endpoints":346,"path":349},"w-vin-r1",[347,348],{"component":231,"pin":294},{"component":239,"pin":296},[350,352],{"x":351,"y":286},140,{"x":242,"y":286},{"id":354,"netId":298,"endpoints":355,"path":358},"w-r1-jinv",[356,357],{"component":239,"pin":302},{"junctionId":335},[359,361],{"x":360,"y":286},280,{"x":264,"y":286},{"id":363,"netId":298,"endpoints":364,"path":367},"w-jinv-u1",[365,366],{"junctionId":335},{"component":255,"pin":304},[368,369],{"x":264,"y":286},{"x":250,"y":286},{"id":371,"netId":298,"endpoints":372,"path":375},"w-jinv-r2",[373,374],{"junctionId":335},{"component":248,"pin":296},[376,377,379],{"x":264,"y":286},{"x":264,"y":378},60,{"x":250,"y":378},{"id":381,"netId":307,"endpoints":382,"path":385},"w-u1-gnd",[383,384],{"component":255,"pin":311},{"component":261,"pin":313},[386,387,389],{"x":250,"y":360},{"x":388,"y":360},360,{"x":388,"y":265},{"id":391,"netId":315,"endpoints":392,"path":395},"w-vcc-u1",[393,394],{"component":268,"pin":294},{"component":255,"pin":320},[396,399],{"x":397,"y":398},440,160,{"x":397,"y":235},{"id":401,"netId":322,"endpoints":402,"path":405},"w-u1-vee",[403,404],{"component":255,"pin":325},{"component":275,"pin":294},[406,408],{"x":397,"y":407},300,{"x":397,"y":264},{"id":410,"netId":328,"endpoints":411,"path":414},"w-u1-jout",[412,413],{"component":255,"pin":294},{"junctionId":338},[415,417],{"x":416,"y":341},480,{"x":340,"y":341},{"id":419,"netId":328,"endpoints":420,"path":423},"w-r2-jout",[421,422],{"component":248,"pin":302},{"junctionId":338},[424,425,426],{"x":416,"y":378},{"x":340,"y":378},{"x":340,"y":341},{"id":428,"netId":328,"endpoints":429,"path":432},"w-jout-pout",[430,431],{"junctionId":338},{"component":282,"pin":313},[433,434],{"x":340,"y":341},{"x":285,"y":341},"\u003Csvg 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2.0 V a 36.0 V)","Tensión de alimentación (VCC)","mixed","LM393: comparador de tensión de precisión con histéresis","Comparador diferencial dual Texas Instruments LM393 en configuración de disparador Schmitt no inversor con 48.5 mV de histéresis por realimentación positiva, umbral de 2.5 V y salida de colector abierto.",9,4,"lm393: comparador de tensión de precisión con histéresis\ncomparador diferencial dual texas instruments lm393 en configuración de disparador schmitt no inversor con 48.5 mv de histéresis por realimentación positiva, umbral de 2.5 v y salida de colector abierto.\nlm393: comparador de tensión de precisión con histéresis\ncomparador diferencial dual texas instruments lm393 en configuración de disparador schmitt no inversor con 48.5 mv de histéresis por realimentación positiva, umbral de 2.5 v y salida de colector abierto.\nlm393 precision voltage comparator with hysteresis\ntexas instruments lm393 dual differential comparator in a non-inverting schmitt trigger configuration with 48.5 mv positive feedback hysteresis, 2.5 v reference threshold, and open-collector output.\nanalog_sensing\ncomparador diferencial dual\nlm393p\nu1\nresistor superior del divisor de referencia\n10kω\nr1\nresistor inferior del divisor de referencia\n10kω\nr2\nresistor de aislamiento en serie de entrada\n10kω\nr3\nresistor de histéresis de realimentación positiva\n1mω\nr4\nresistor pull-up de colector abierto\n4.7kω\nr5\ncondensador de desacoplo de alimentación\n100nf\nc1\npuerto de señal analógica de entrada\nvin\np_vin\npuerto de salida del comparador\nvout\np_vout",{"slug":457,"cluster":458,"tier":21,"supplyVoltage":459,"voltageSpecification":462,"signalDomain":465,"breadboardFriendly":14,"title":466,"shortDescription":467,"bomCount":468,"formulaCount":454,"search":469},"2n2222-relay-driver-flyback-protection","microcontroller_interfaces",[460,445,461],"3.3v","12v",{"kind":447,"value":463,"label":464},"+12.0 V CC nominal (rango operativo de +10.8 V a +13.2 V)","Tensión de alimentación del relé (VLOAD)","digital","Controlador de relé con BJT NPN 2N2222 \u002F 2N2222A y diodo flyback 1N4007","Circuito de conmutación de lado bajo con transistor bipolar NPN para relé de 12V con diodo flyback 1N4007, excitación en saturación y desacoplo de alimentación para MCU de 3.3V\u002F5V.",7,"controlador de relé con bjt npn 2n2222 \u002F 2n2222a y diodo flyback 1n4007\ncircuito de conmutación de lado bajo con transistor bipolar npn para relé de 12v con diodo flyback 1n4007, excitación en saturación y desacoplo de alimentación para mcu de 3.3v\u002F5v.\ncontrolador de relé con bjt npn 2n2222 \u002F 2n2222a y diodo flyback 1n4007\ncircuito de conmutación de lado bajo con transistor bipolar npn para relé de 12v con diodo flyback 1n4007, excitación en saturación y desacoplo de alimentación para mcu de 3.3v\u002F5v.\n2n2222 \u002F 2n2222a npn bjt relay driver with 1n4007 flyback clamping diode\ndiscrete npn bipolar junction transistor low-side relay driver circuit with 1n4007 flyback suppression diode, base saturation drive, and supply decoupling for 3.3v\u002F5v mcu control.\nmicrocontroller_interfaces\ntransistor bipolar npn de uso general\n2n2222a\nq1\ndiodo rectificador \u002F fijador de uso general\n1n4007\nd1\nrelé subminiatura electromecánico spdt\ng5v-1-dc12\nk1\nresistencia limitadora de base 1 kω\n1kω\nr1\nresistencia pull-down de base 10 kω\n10kω\nr2\ncondensador cerámico de desacoplo mlcc\n100nf 50v\nc1\ncondensador electrolítico de desacoplo de aluminio\n47µf 25v\nc2",{"slug":471,"cluster":472,"tier":21,"supplyVoltage":473,"voltageSpecification":474,"signalDomain":477,"breadboardFriendly":478,"title":479,"shortDescription":480,"bomCount":481,"formulaCount":482,"search":483},"bjt-astable-multivibrator-led-flasher","timing_oscillators",[445],{"kind":447,"value":475,"label":476},"5,0 V CC nominal supuesto de diseño para demostración educativa. Requiere margen suficiente por encima de la tensión directa del LED azul (~3,3 V típ.) para polarizar resistencias de colector y base; transitorios inversos base-emisor deben permanecer dentro del límite máximo absoluto (VEBO = 6,0 V para 2N3904BU).","Tensión nominal de alimentación","analog",false,"Multivibrador astable con transistores bipolares (destellador LED)","Oscilador de relajación discreto de dos transistores con acoplamiento cruzado que conmuta alternativamente dos LED sin circuitos integrados.",10,3,"multivibrador astable con transistores bipolares (destellador led)\noscilador de relajación discreto de dos transistores con acoplamiento cruzado que conmuta alternativamente dos led sin circuitos integrados.\nmultivibrador astable con transistores bipolares (destellador led)\noscilador de relajación discreto de dos transistores con acoplamiento cruzado que conmuta alternativamente dos led sin circuitos integrados.\nbjt astable multivibrator led flasher\ndiscrete two-transistor cross-coupled relaxation oscillator driving alternating leds without an integrated circuit.\ntiming_oscillators\ntransistor de unión bipolar npn\n2n3904bu\nq1\ntransistor de unión bipolar npn\n2n3904bu\nq2\nresistencia de película de carbón de 1\u002F4 w\n1kω\nr1\nresistencia de película de carbón de 1\u002F4 w\n47kω\nr2\nresistencia de película de carbón de 1\u002F4 w\n47kω\nr3\nresistencia de película de carbón de 1\u002F4 w\n1kω\nr4\ncondensador cerámico multicapa x7r no polar\n10µf\nc1\ncondensador cerámico multicapa x7r no polar\n10µf\nc2\nled indicador rojo estándar de 5 mm\nred\nd1\nled indicador azul estándar de 5 mm\nblue\nd2",1793836431975]